As a history student you are expected to write like historians, proposing and arguing theses and citing your sources accurately so readers can evaluate your arguments and conclusions.

Sources are vitally important to historical study and writing, so historians have developed general conventions to cite sources. Variations of styles are used by different publishers and journals, and these conventions have changed over the years. Now electronic media must also be cited, and there is even less agreement on these forms. To simplify matters for both faculty and students, this style sheet provides guidelines that the UCA history faculty expect students to follow in writing history papers in 2320 and upper division courses.

Useful supplements to this guide can be found at:   http://library.concordia.ca/services/citations.html where students can find additional examples of citations. Please choose those that conform to the Turabian/University of Chicago style.

General Principles

WRITING THE TEXT OF YOUR PAPER

1. Find your sources to research your topic. Select good primary sources and reliable secondary sources.
2. Use the LIBRARY! While much valuable information is available on the Internet, the traditional library remains an essential resource for information. Be sure to consult books, collections of articles, and journals.
3. Develop a clear thesis before you before you begin writing, based upon the sources appropriate for the paper.
4. Outline your arguments and assemble their supporting evidence.
5. Write your first draft. Establish your thesis clearly in your paper.

• Basic structure: Introduction: explain your purpose, stating your thesis or pose your question
• Body: Make your argument to prove your thesis or answer your question
• Conclusion: summarize your main point/thesis.

6. Summarize general information or facts in your own words.
7. Generally, avoid direct quotes except to cite:

• important text that you analyze or discuss further, or
• a witty or clever comment or saying for seizing attention or emphasizing a point you make.

8. Reread and revise your paper. Remember that writing is a process and that revision is a way of clarifying and organizing your thoughts.

1. Double space the text in your paper.
2. Set off long quotations (over four typed lines) by indenting (5 spaces) and single-spacing them.  Typically, they are preceded by an introductory sentence followed by a colon.  These are called block quotations. Use them sparingly; do not allow them to substitute for your own narrative.
3. Provide page numbers after the title page. 
4. Keep your word choice interesting and accurate. Do not use the same words repetitiously.
5. Vary sentence length : use short sentences for emphasis. Get to your point simply and directly. Don’t write in long, involved sentences, or try to impress by being pompous.
6. Vary your vocabulary.
7. Rarely use first person. You cite sources for other people’s opinions, and the reader assumes that the all unreferenced opinions and interpretations are your own.
8. Avoid using second person "you" in writing your paper.
9. Do not over-paragraph. Every paragraph should have a topic sentence and supporting sentences.
10. Use good grammar: keep verb tenses consistent .

• keep noun-verb number in agreement.
• correctly use commas, colons, semi-colons, and other punctuation.

11. AVOID slang or contractions .
12. PROOFREAD, PROOFREAD, PROOFREAD!

1. Use footnotes or endnotes to provide references for:

• information found in primary materials
• direct quotes
• interpretations, arguments, and factual information found in secondary sources
• additional sources of information for readers interested in further information you cannot provide in your paper.

• other locations in your own paper that refer to the text.

• explanations that are useful for understanding but would be intrusive or awkward in the text, word definitions, or further identification of people, places, or things.
• examples or lists that provide useful, but not essential information or detail.
• quotations in a foreign language.
• acknowledgements.

• cite well known facts and dates.
• reference every sentence or fact. If one or several sources provide information in a single paragraph, group the references together in one citation at the end of the paragraph. You may also use one note for several purposes if they all pertain to the same information in your text.

1. Keep it simple. Do not use:

• Roman numerals
• unnecessary abbreviations: vol., p., pp.
• Latin abbreviations (such as op. cit.).

• Italicize titles of complete works (books, periodical titles, plays, long poems, musical compositions). If that is impossible, underline them.
• Use quotation marks to indicate titles of articles and selections/parts of other works (such as chapters, acts, short poems)
  
• Cite the reference in full the first time. Use the short form for subsequent reference s. If there is only one work by the author in your bibliography, you do not need to include a shortened form of the title, only the author and the page number.
• Generally use the short form instead of ibid. (Do not italicize ibid.)
• Be consistent. There are style variations possible, but you must follow the form consistently throughout your paper.
• Be as specific as possible. Remember, the purpose of the note is to direct the reader toward information in specific places, on pages, in particular articles, at particular web addresses, etc.

Below are models for footnotes and bibliographic entries for many types of sources. Note examples always include the appropriate first citation of a source. Occasionally an example of the shortened form for subsequent citations follows the full citation. Some of them are generalized models, indicating what elements are included.

Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations provides guidelines for most sources, but does not yet include internet sources in the sixth edition. Sources from the internet below are modeled and adapted from Turabian's guidelines and customary internet
usage to fit the historian's needs.

Books
Type of Source		Full citation for the first reference to this source in your paper. Short form for subsequent references to this same source.	Bibliography entry.  Remember: they should have a hanging indent. (See General Form above.)
Book, one author		1John W. Smith, Populism on the Prairie: A Study of People’s Party in Nebraska, 1884 -1893 (New York: Macmillan, 1975), 35.  4 Smith, Populism on the Prairie, 38.	Smith, John W. Populism on the Prairie: A Study of People’s Party in Nebraska.1884-1893. New York: Macmillan, 1975.
Book, two authors		8 Kevin McDermott and Jeremy Agnew, The Comintern: A History of International Communismfrom Lenin to Stalin (NewYork : St. Martin's Press, 1997), 47.  10 McDermot, Comintern, 89.	McDermott , Kevin and Jeremy Agnew. TheComintern : A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin. New York : St. Martin's Press, 1997.
Book, no authors		17 New Life Options: The Working Women's Resource Book (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), 42.  19 New Life Options, 23.	New Life Options: The Working Women's Resource Book. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.
Well-known work, such as the Bible		4 John 3:16 Revised Standard Version.  7 Genesis 1:1 RSV.	Well-known reference works such as the Bible are usually not included in the bibliography.
Institution as author		7 U.S. General Accounting Office, Desert Shield and Desert Storm Reports and Testamonies, 1991-93 (Washington, D.C.: General Accounting Office, 1994), 446.  12 Desert Shield and Desert Storm Reports, 452.	U.S. General Accounting Office. Desert Shield  and Desert Storm Reports and Testamonies, 1991-93. Washington, D.C.:  General Accounting Office, 1994.
Editor as author		3 Barbara A. Hanawalt, ed., Chaucer's England: History in Literature and Context (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 27.  4 Hanawalt, Chaucer's England,112.	Hanawalt,  Barbara A. ed. Chaucer's England:History in Literature and Context. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992.
Work with author and editor  (author's name in title)		12 Aristotle, Aristotle Dictionary, ed. Thomas P. Kiernan  (New York, Philosophical Library, l962), 312.  13 Aristotle Dictionary, 423.	Aristotle. Aristotle Dictionary. Edited by Thomas P. Kiernan. New York, Philosophical Library, l962.
Work with author and translator		2 Georges Duby,  Medieval  Marriage: Two Models from Twelfth-Century France, trans. Elborg Forster (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 7.  4 Georges Duby,  Medieval  Marriage, 26.	Duby, Georges.  Medieval  Marriage: Two  Models from Twelfth-Century France. Translated by Elborg Forster. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
Edition other than the first		26 William Vaughn Moody and Robert Morss  Lovett, A History of English Literature, 7th ed. (New York: Scribner and Sons, 1956), 101.  30 Moody, History of English Literature, 112.	Moody, William Vaughn and Robert Morss  Lovett. A History of English Literature,  7th ed. New York: Scribner and Sons, 1956.
Reprinted edition		3 C.R. Cheney, ed., Handbook of Dates for Students of English History (London: Offices of the Royal Historical Society, 1991; reprint, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 23.  6 Cheney, Handbook of Dates, 46.	Cheney,  C.R. ed. Handbook of Dates for Students of English History. London:  Offices of the Royal Historical Society, 1991.  Reprint, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Multi-volume work.		12 The Wartime Genesis of Free  Labor: The Upper South, ed. Ira Berlin, vol. 1 of Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 314. 19 Wartime Genesis ,102.	Freedom: A Documentary History of   Emancipation, 1861-1867. 4 vols. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Work by one author in a work by another		23 James Brundage, "Prostitution in Canon Law, " in Sisters and Workers in the Middle Ages, eds. Judith M. Bennett, et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 82.  27 Brundage, "Prostitution in Canon Law," 91.	Brundage,  James. "Prostitution in Canon Law," in Sisters and Workers in the MiddleAges. Edited by Judith M. Bennett, et al. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,  1989,  79-99.
Published Articles or Items in a Periodical
Article in a journal paginated by volume		12 Warwick Anderson, "The Trespass Speaks: White Masculinity and Colonial Breakdown," American Historical Review 102 (1997): 1350.  12 Anderson, "The Trespass Speaks," 1350.	Anderson, Warwick. "The Trespass Speaks:  White Masculinity and Colonial Breakdown." 102 (1997): 1343-1370.
Article in a weekly periodical paginated by issue		3 Ellise Pierce, "A Crushing Wave of Wood," Newsweek, 29 November 1999, 44. 22 Pierce, 45.	Pierce, Ellise. "A Crushing Wave of Wood." Newsweek, 29 November 1999, 44-45.
Newspaper article or item		3 Little Rock Arkansas Gazette, September 3, 1884.  or if there is an author listed: 4 Stephen Sternberg, "AIDS in Africa Is Reshaping Whole Populations, Study Says," USA Today, 11 July 2000, sec. A.	Little Rock Arkansas Gazette, 1883 -1893.  or if you only consulted the one article: Sternberg, Stephen. "AIDS in Africa Is  Reshaping Whole Populations, Study Says," USA Today, 11 July 2000, sec. A.
Book review		5Michelle Renee Salzman, review of Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, by Ramsay McMullen, American Historical Review 105 (2000): 984.	Salzman, Michelle Renee. Review of Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, by Ramsay McMullen. American Historical Review 105 (2000): 984-985.
Entry  without author in a standard reference work		13Funk and Wagnalls New Encyclopedia, 1983 ed., s.v. "Phencyclidine."	Well-known reference works such as dictionaries or encyclopedias are usually not included in the bibliography.
Unpublished materials
Dissertation or thesis		8 Vincent E. Hammond, "The History of the Novgorodian Pomest'e: 1480-1550"  (Ph.D. diss., The University of Illinois, 1987), 42.  13 Hammond, 31.	Hammond, Vincent E.  "The History of the Novgorodian Pomest'e: 1480-1550."  Ph.D. diss., The University of Illinois, 1987.
Letters		3 George Fitzhugh to George Frederick Holmes. March 27, 1855 in Holmes Letterbook, Duke University Library. 7 Joseph Clinton to James Flowers, August 12, 1987, Box 3, Folder 4, Symon P. Picard Papers, Arkansas History Commisssion, Little Rock.	Holmes Letterbook. Duke University Library.     Symon Picard Papers. Arkansas History Commisssion, Little Rock.
Interviews		20 H. Ross Perot, interview by Mike Wallace, 60 Minutes, Columbia Broadcasting System, 8 March 1992.  25 H. Ross Perot interview..	H. Ross Perot. Interview by Mike Wallace. 60Minutes. Columbia Broadcasting System, 8  March 1992.
Personal communication to the writer of the paper		20 Gordon Bentley, interview with author, Morrilton, Arkansas, October 7, 1992.  25 Gordon Bentley interview.	Because the reader will not have access to personal communications or interviews, there is no need to list this source in a bibloiography.
Electronic Documents
Article found on the internet, previously published, changed format		1 Firstname AuthorLastname, "Article Title," in Book Title, ed. Firstname Lastname (Place of Publication: Name of Publisher, Year; transcribed into HTML by person or institution, Year) paragraph #. Available online <http://www.whatever.html> (Date of your access).	AuthorLastname, Firstname. "Article Title." In _ Book Title_ edited by Firstname Lastname. Place of Publication: Name of Publisher, Year, page numbers. [Transcribed into HTML by person or institution (Year)] Available online <http://www.whatever.html> (Date of your access).
Work found on the internet, but previously published. Transcribed by institution publishing it on the internet.		4 Randolph Harrison McKim, A Soldier's Recollections: Leaves from the Diary of a Young Confederate (New York: Longmans, 1910; available online at "Documenting the American South: Beginnings to 1920," The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1999). < http://jmu.edu/madison/madexpcontojeff.html > (Feb. 13, 2000).	McKim, Randolph Harrison. A Soldier’s Recollections: Leaves from the Diary of a Young Confederate. New York: Longmans, 1910. Available online: "Documenting the American South, Beginnings to 1920" The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 1999. <http://jmu.edu/madison/madexpcontojeff.html> (Feb. 13, 2000).
Article first published on the internet		6Brian Irby, "From Peace to War: The Formulation of the Idea of Crusade," Central Arkansas Historical Review 1 (Spring 1997), <http://www.uca.edu/history/cahr/irby.htm > (July 18, 2000).	Irby, Brian. ‘From Peace to War: The Formulation of the Idea of Crusade." Central Arkansas Historical Review 1 (Spring 1997). <http://www.uca.edu/history/cahr/irby.htm/> (July 18, 2000 ).
Webpage		9 Robert Helmerichs, "Rob's Norman Bibliography," 1999-2001, <http://www.ukans.edu/carrie/NormBib/ y > (February 25, 2002).	Helmerichs, Robert "Rob's Norman Bibliography," 1999-2001. <http://www.ukans.edu/carrie/NormBib/ y> (February 25, 2002).
E-mail message		23 Arlene Wiese, <amwiese@netscape.net> "Re: Slave Populations on Mississippi Plantations," January 20, 1996, personal e-mail to Ann Stade Anns29@excite.com (January 21, 1996).	Because the reader will not have access to personal communications or interviews, there is no need to list this source in a bibloiography.
Listserve or newsgroup message		14 Paul Hyams < prh3@cornell.edu > "Re:  Medieval Paris and Oxford Maps," 16 February 2000, <MEDIEV-L@raven.cc.ukans.edu> (20 February 2000).	Hyams, Paul < prh3@cornell.edu > "Re: Medieval Paris and Oxford Maps." 16 February 2000. <MEDIEV-L@raven.cc.ukans.edu > (20 February 2000).
Film or videocassette		3 "Forever Free," The Civil War, prod. Ken Burns, 11 hours, PBS Video, 1990, videocassette.	The Civil War. Produced by Ken Burns. 11 hours. PBS Video, 1990. 9 videocassettes.

Bibliography

Rampolla, Mary Lynn. A Pocket Guide to Writing in History , 2 ^nd ed. Bedford/St. Martin's: Boston, 1998.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 6^th ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996.